Will Heating Beef Tallow in the Presence of Acid Instead of Base Produce Soap

Fats and Fat Acids

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Fats occur naturally in nutrient and play a significant role in human diet. Fats are used to store energy in the trunk, insulate body tissues, cushion internal organs, and transport fatty-soluble vitamins in the blood. Fats also play in an important function in food grooming: They enhance food flavour and food texture, brand baked products tender, and conduct heat during cooking.

Fats are the most prevalent grade of compounds (in living systems) referred to as lipids . Lipids are cellular compounds that are insoluble in water. Fats are soft, depression-melting solids, with a density less than that of water. They have a greasy feel and are slippery. Because fats are insoluble in h2o and less dense than water, after meat that has a lot of fatty in it has been cooked, upon cooling a layer of fat oft appears on top of the juices. Fats and closely related oils are mixtures of compounds consisting of fatty acids combined with glycerol (usually known every bit glycerin) via ester linkages. Fatty acids are long, straight chain carboxylic acids. A fatty (or oil) is formed when three fatty acid molecules react with a glycerol molecule to yield a triglyceride (and three water molecules). (See Figure 1.) Fats in the body are transported and stored equally triglycerides.

Fat molecules are characterized as monoglycerides, diglycerides, or triglycerides, depending on whether there are one, two, or iii fatty acid bondage present in the molecules. Fat acids in nature by and large have an even number of carbon atoms considering they are synthesized in cells via successive

Figure 1. The formation of a triglyceride of stearic acid.

additions of two-carbon acetate groups in a stepwise cyclic reaction. Some fatty acids establish in nature are shown in Tabular array i.

Fats and Oils

Dietary fats and oils are both triglycerides. Fats are generally solids and oils are more often than not liquids at ordinary room temperatures. The characteristics of fats and oils are related to the properties of the fatty acids that they incorporate. The larger the number of carbon atoms, the higher the melting betoken ; the larger the number of double bonds, the lower the melting betoken. Oils comprise a higher percentage of unsaturated fat acids than fats. Fats from animal sources tend to be solids and fats from vegetable sources tend to be liquids. Thus fats are oftentimes referred to as "beast fats" and "vegetable oils."

When fats or oils are exposed to air, they react with the oxygen or water vapor to form short-chain carboxylic acids. The curt-chain acids are volatile and have unpleasant smells and tastes. For case, the strong smell and sour gustation of vinegar are due to acetic acrid, a two-carbon carboxylic acrid . The oxidation procedure is called rancidification and tin make foods unpalatable. The characteristic smell of rancid butter is due to the presence of butyric acid (a iv-carbon acid). (Rancidity can also be the result of the hydrolysis of fats or oils.)

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

In that location are most forty naturally occurring fat acids. The fat acids without carbon-carbon double bonds are classified as saturated, and those containing carbon-carbon double bonds are classified as unsaturated. Palmitic and stearic acids are the most common saturated fatty acids, and oleic and linoleic acids are the nigh common unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid is monounsaturated considering information technology has just one carbon-carbon double bond. Linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated because they have two, three, and 4 carbon-carbon double bonds, respectively. A way to mensurate the relative degree of unsaturation of a fatty or an oil is to determine its iodine number. The iodine number is the mass of iodine, in grams, that is consumed by (reacts with) 100 grams of a fat or an oil. Iodine reacts with the carbon-carbon double bonds. Thus the greater the number of double bonds, the college the iodine number. In general, fats take lower iodine numbers than oils considering oils have greater percentages of carbon-carbon bonds that are double bonds. For example, typical iodine numbers for butter are 25 to 40, and for corn oil, 115 to 130.

Table 1.

Fatty ACIDS
Common Saturated Fatty Acids
Number of Carbon Atoms	Formula	Common Proper name	Source
iv	CH iii (CH 2 ) ii COOH	Butyric acrid	Butter
six	CH 3 (CH 2 ) four COOH	Caproic acid	Butter
8	CH 3 (CH ii ) half dozen COOH	Caprylic acid	Coconut oil
10	CH 3 (CH two ) 8 COOH	Capric acid	Kokosnoot oil
12	CH 3 (CH 2 ) 10 COOH	Lauric acid	Palm kernel oil
14	CH three (CH 2 ) 12 COOH	Myristic acid	Oil of nutmeg
16	CH three (CH ii ) xiv COOH	Palmitic acid	Palm oil
18	CH iii (CH ii ) xvi COOH	Stearic acid	Beefiness tallow
18	CH 3 (CH 2 ) vii CH=CH(CH 2 ) 7 COOH	Oleic acid	Olive oil
eighteen	CH iii (CH 2 ) iv CH=CHCH 2 CH(CH 2 ) 7 COOH	Linoleic acid	Soybean oil
18	CH 3 CH 2 (CH=CHCH ii ) 3 (CH 2 ) half dozen COOH	Linolenic acid	Fish oils
20	CH 3 (CH two ) 4 (CH=CHCH ii ) 4 (CH two ) 2 COOH	Arachidonic	acrid Liver
22	CH 3 (CH two ) 20 COOH	Beheric acid	Sesame oil
Mutual Unsaturated Fat Acids
Number of Carbon Atoms	Formula	Common Proper name	Source
16	CH 3 (CH two ) 5 CH=CH(CH 2 ) 7 COOH	Palmitoleic acid	Whale oil
18	CH 3 (CH 2 ) 7 CH=CH(CH 2 ) vii COOH	Oleic acrid	Olive oil
18	CH iii (CH 2 ) four CH=CHCH 2 CH(CH two ) 7 COOH	Linoleic acrid	Soybean oil, safflower oil
18	CH iii CH 2 (CH=CHCH 2 ) 3 (CH 2 ) 6 COOH	Linolenic acid	Fish oils, linseed oil
20	CH 3 (CH 2 ) 4 (CH=CHCH ii ) four (CH 2 ) 2 COOH	Arachidonic	acrid Liver

Hydrogenation

In add-on to their reacting with iodine, unsaturated fats and oils react with hydrogen. Like iodine atoms, hydrogen atoms add together beyond the carbon-carbon double bonds. Vegetable oils, with their higher degrees of unsaturation, tin be converted to solids via reaction with hydrogen in a procedure called hydrogenation. A polyhydrogenated fat is one that has been contradistinct by such a reaction. The reaction may cause the oil to go a solid. Margarine and shortening are vegetable-based oils that have undergone fractional hydrogenation. Because the amounts of hydrogen added tin be controlled, the products of these reactions can exist engineered to have specific backdrop, such every bit degrees of softness and a called melting bespeak. The peanut oil in peanut butter usually has been hydrogenated to forbid it from separating. Another product of partial hydrogenation is a class of fats called trans fatty acids. Foods high in trans fatty acids (for instance, margarine, shortening, and commercially fried nutrient) tend to raise cholesterol levels in the blood.

Composition of Fats and Oils

Fat and oil glyceride molecules tin can contain a single fatty acid species or any combination of upward to iii fat acids. Near naturally occurring fat and oil molecules contain a combination of fatty acids. As indicated previously, the greater the percentages of carbon-carbon bonds that are double bonds

Figure two.

in the fatty acids of a glyceride, the lower is the melting point and the more probable the glyceride will be as a liquid at room temperature. Figure ii shows the composition (in terms of their saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated portions) of some common fats and oils. Note that the oils tend to incorporate fewer saturated fatty acids. Coconut oil is an exception; although information technology does contain an ample amount of saturated fatty acids, approximately two-thirds of its fatty acid content is derived from lauric and myristic acids. Lauric and myristic acids have shorter chains of 12 and 14 carbons, respectively, and they are responsible for the low melting point of coconut oil.

Saponification

Because fats and oils are triesters of glycerol, they react with water to grade fatty acids and glycerin. When the reaction is carried out in a basic solution, salts of the fatty acids are produced instead of the fatty acids themselves. The salts of fatty acids are soaps and an private molecule is characterized by an ionic cease (the salt function) and a nonpolar end (the hydrocarbon office). The ionic table salt end is water-soluble and the nonpolar hydrocarbon end is water insoluble. The process of making soaps past treating fats and oils with bones substances is chosen saponification (which means "soapmaking"). Pioneers made lather by calculation lye (the base sodium hydroxide) to animal fat, and then heating the mixture. The soap rose to the top of the pot and solidified upon cooling and the glycerol remained at the bottom.

Fats and oils can be characterized by their saponification numbers. The saponification number is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide needed to saponify completely one gram of a fat or an oil. I mole of fat requires 3 moles of potassium hydroxide for complete saponification. If a fat contains fat acids of relatively high molecular weights, then one gram of the fatty will consist of fewer moles. Thus, fats having greater percentages of high molecular weight fat acids volition have lower saponification numbers than fats having greater percentages of lower molecular weight fatty acids. Lard, which contains mostly 16– and eighteen–carbon fatty acids, has a saponification number range of 190 to 200. Kokosnoot oil, which is virtually 50 percent lauric acid, a 12–carbon fat acrid, has a saponification number approaching 260.

Fats in the Diet

Fats are necessary to maintain the body. Dietary fats exist mainly in the form of triglycerides. Fats are classified as high-energy food. They provide about 9 kilocalorie (kcal) of energy per gram consumed. In contrast, both carbohydrates and proteins provide about 4 kcal of free energy per gram consumed. As a result, fat is the almost efficient way to store free energy. If one consumes more than calories than he or she needs, some of the excess calorie source is converted to fat.

Information technology is generally recommended that not more than 30 percentage of ane's dietary calories should derive from fatty (and of this 30 percent, 10 percent should exist monounsaturated, and 10 pct, polyunsaturated). It appears that consumption of greater amounts of saturated fats (compared to amounts of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats) is related to higher levels of cholesterol in the blood and a greater risk of center disease. In the United States the boilerplate diet is about 34 pct fat and (13 per centum saturated fat).

Fatty Substitutes

Because an average American diet tends to be higher in fats than what is recommended, in that location accept been quests for substitutes for fatty. 3 products were starting time marketed as fat substitutes in the 1990s. The first was Simplesse, made by G.D. Searle. It is a low-calorie fat substitute made from milk protein (whey). The whey is made to undergo a microparticulation procedure that produces microparticles and prevents the formation of larger particle aggregates. The small size and uniformly spherical shape of Simplesse particles are responsible for this product's resemblance to a creamy fluid. The texture of Simplesse is similar to that of fats, and its use in frozen desserts can inhibit the growth of ice crystals. Simplesse is used in cheeses, frozen desserts, dressings, spreads, and puddings. It cannot be used in foods that require baking or frying.

Another product is Olestra, made by Procter and Gamble, and it is sold to nutrient producers as Olean. Information technology is an ester of sucrose (instead of glycerol), and it is used as a substitute for fats in potato chips, crackers, and tortilla chips. Olestra's similarity to fats with respect to molecular structure contributes to its ability to mimic the mouth-feel of fat. However, information technology is much bulkier than a triglyceride-containing food, and this bulkiness prevents it from existence digested and absorbed by the body. Thus it has no dietary caloric content. Potato chips fried in Olestra have 75 calories (instead of the 150 calories corresponding to fries fried in fatty the traditional fashion). Similar fat, Olestra is nonpolar and tin can dissolve other fat-soluble substances, including the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Information technology is problematic that Olestra absorbs these vitamins that are stored in fat and are necessary for practiced wellness. Olestra is therefore fortified with vitamins A, D, E, and K to preclude it from depleting the body'southward supply of these vitamins. Although theU.South. Nutrient and Drug Administration has found Olestra to exist condom and has approved its apply in snack foods, it required warnings on products containing Olestra because of undesirable side effects, such every bit diarrhea and abdominal cramping.

A third fatty substitute, Z-Trim, has been developed past the U.S. Department of Agronomics. Originally called Oat-Trim, it is made from agricultural by-products, such as the hulls of oats, peas, soybeans, and rice, or bran from corn or wheat. Because it is made from natural dietary fibers, it is digestible. Not but does information technology lower fat consumption, it also provides fiber for the diet. Z-Trim can exist used as a fatty substitute in cheese products, broiled goods, and hamburgers. Brownies containing Z-Trim are 16 percentage fat (compared to 25 per centum for traditional brownies).

Although fat substitutes may reduce the caloric contents of the foods in which they are used, circumspection is still necessary. Foods labeled "fat costless" are not "calorie free." If an private feels that he or she tin eat more of a nutrient containing a fat substitute, his or her total caloric intake may actually increase.

Encounter ALSO Detergents ; Lipids ; Soap .

Jerry L. Sarquis

Bibliography

Bailey, Phillip S., Jr., and Bailey, Christina A. (2000). Organic Chemistry, 6th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hill, John W., and Kolb, Doris G. (2001). Chemistry for Irresolute Times, 9th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Stanitski, Conrad 50.; Pryde Eubanks, Lucy; Middlecamp, Cathrine H.; et al. (2000). Chemical science in Context, 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Internet Resources

Calorie Control Quango. "Fat Replacers: Ingredients for Healthy Eating." Bachelor from http://www.caloriecontrol.org/frgloss.html .

Clemson University. Nutrition Information Resource Center. "The Simplesse Substitute." Available from http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/ .

C. P. Kelco Company. "Simplesse." Available from http://www.cpkelco.com/food/ .

Hardin, B. "USDA Develops Tasty, No-Cal, Loftier-Fiber Fatty Substitute." Available from http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ .

Procter & Gamble Company. "Olean." Available from http://world wide web.olean.com/ .

Sports, Cardiovascular, and Wellness Nutritionists. A Dietetic Practise Group of the American Dietetic Clan, eds. "A Primer on Fats and Oils." Available from http://www.eatright.org/nfs/ .

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. "Olestra and Other Fatty Substitutes." Available from http://world wide web.fda.gov/opacom/ .

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